Quark star

A quark star is a hypothetical type of compact exotic star composed of quark matter, where extremely high temperature and pressure forces nuclear particles to dissolve into a continuous phase consisting of free quarks. These are ultra-dense phases of degenerate matter theorized to form inside neutron stars exceeding a predicted internal pressure needed for quark degeneracy. Quark stars, if they exist, would resemble and be mistaken for neutron stars: they would form in the death of a massive star in a Type II supernova, they would be extremely dense and possess a very high gravitational field.

The hypothesis about quark stars was first proposed in 1965 by Soviet physicists D.D. Ivanenko and D.F. Kurdgelaidze.[1][2] Their existence has not been confirmed. The equation of state of quark matter is uncertain, as is the transition point between neutron-degenerate matter and quark matter. Theoretical uncertainties have precluded making predictions from first principles. Experimentally, the behaviour of quark matter is being actively studied with particle colliders, but this can only produce very hot (above 1012 K) quark-gluon plasma blobs the size of atomic nuclei, which decay immediately after formation. The conditions inside compact stars with extremely high densities and temperatures well below 1012 K can not be recreated artificially so there are no known methods to produce, store or study "cold" quark matter directly as it would be found inside quark stars. The theory predicts quark matter to possess some peculiar characteristics under these conditions.

Creation

It is theorized that when the neutron-degenerate matter, which makes up neutron stars, is put under sufficient pressure from the star's own gravity or the initial supernova creating it, the individual neutrons break down into their constituent quarks (up quarks and down quarks), forming what is known as quark matter. This conversion might be confined to the neutron star's center or it might transform the entire star, depending on the physical circumstances. Such a star is known as a quark star.[3][4]

Stability and strange quark matter

Ordinary quark matter consisting of up and down quarks (also referred to as u and d quarks) has a very high Fermi energy compared to ordinary atomic matter and is only stable under extreme temperatures and/or pressures. This suggests that the only stable quark stars will be neutron stars with a quark matter core, while quark stars consisting entirely of ordinary quark matter will be highly unstable and dissolve spontaneously.[5][6]

It has been shown that the high Fermi energy making ordinary quark matter unstable at low temperatures and pressures can be lowered substantially by the transformation of a sufficient number of u and d quarks into strange quarks, as strange quarks are, relatively speaking, a very heavy type of quark particle.[5] This kind of quark matter is known specifically as strange quark matter and it is speculated and subject to current scientific investigation whether it might in fact be stable under the conditions of interstellar space (i.e. near zero external pressure and temperature). If this is the case (known as the Bodmer–Witten assumption), quark stars made entirely of quark matter would be stable if they quickly transform into strange quark matter.[7]

Strange stars

Quark stars made of strange quark matter are known as strange stars, and they form a subgroup under the quark star category.[7]

Strange stars might exist without regard of the Bodmer-Witten assumption of stability at near-zero temperatures and pressures, as strange quark matter might form and remain stable at the core of neutron stars, in the same way as ordinary quark matter could.[3] Such strange stars will naturally have a crust layer of neutron star material. The depth of the crust layer will depend on the physical conditions and circumstances of the entire star and on the properties of strange quark matter in general.[8] Stars partially made up of quark matter (including strange quark matter) are also referred to as hybrid stars.[9][10][11][12]

Theoretical investigations have revealed that quark stars might not only be produced from neutron stars and powerful supernovas, but they could also be created in the early cosmic phase separations following the Big Bang.[5] If these primordial quark stars transform into strange quark matter before the external temperature and pressure conditions of the early Universe makes them unstable, they might turn out stable, if the Bodmer–Witten assumption holds true. Such primordial strange stars could survive to this day.[5]

Characteristics

Quark stars have some special characteristics that separate them from ordinary neutron stars.

Under the physical conditions found inside neutron stars, with extremely high densities but temperatures well below 1012 K, quark matter is predicted to exhibit some peculiar characteristics. It is expected to behave as a Fermi liquid and enter a so-called color-flavor-locked (CFL) phase of color superconductivity. At slightly lower densities, corresponding to higher layers closer to the surface of the compact star, the quark matter will behave as a non-CFL quark liquid, a phase that is even more mysterious than CFL and might include color conductivity and/or several additional yet undiscovered phases. None of these extreme conditions can currently be recreated in laboratories so nothing can be inferred about these phases from direct experiments.[13]

If the conversion of neutron-degenerate matter to (strange) quark matter is total, a quark star can to some extent be imagined as a single gigantic hadron. But this "hadron" will be bound by gravity, rather than the strong force that binds ordinary hadrons.

Strange stars

Recent theoretical research has found mechanisms by which quark stars with "strange quark nuggets" may decrease the objects' electric fields and densities from previous theoretical expectations, causing such stars to appear very much like — nearly indistinguishable from — ordinary neutron stars. This suggests that many, or even all, known neutron stars might in fact be strange stars. However, the investigating team of Prashanth Jaikumar, Sanjay Reddy, and Andrew W. Steiner made some fundamental assumptions, that led to uncertainties in their results large enough that the case is not finally settled. More research, both observational and theoretical, remains to be done on strange stars in the future.[14]

Other theoretical work[15] contends that, "A sharp interface between quark matter and the vacuum would have very different properties from the surface of a neutron star"; and, addressing key parameters like surface tension and electrical forces that were neglected in the original study, the results show that as long as the surface tension is below a low critical value, the large strangelets are indeed unstable to fragmentation and strange stars naturally come with complex strangelet crusts, analogous to those of neutron stars.

Observed overdense neutron stars

Statistically, the probability of a neutron star being a quark star is low, so in the Milky Way there would only be a small population of quark stars. If it is correct however, that overdense neutron stars can turn into quark stars, that makes the possible number of quark stars higher than was originally thought, as observers would be looking for the wrong type of star.

Quark stars and strange stars are entirely hypothetical as of 2011, but observations released by the Chandra X-ray Observatory on April 10, 2002 detected two candidates, designated RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C58, which had previously been thought to be neutron stars. Based on the known laws of physics, the former appeared much smaller and the latter much colder than it should be, suggesting that they are composed of material denser than neutron-degenerate matter. However, these observations are met with skepticism by researchers who say the results were not conclusive;[16] and since the late 2000s, the possibility that RX J1856 is a quark star has been excluded.

Another star, XTE J1739-285,[17] has been observed by a team led by Philip Kaaret of the University of Iowa and reported as a possible candidate.

In 2006, Y. L. Yue et al., from Peking University, suggested that PSR B0943+10 may in fact be a low-mass quark star.[18]

It was reported in 2008 that observations of supernovae SN2006gy, SN2005gj and SN2005ap also suggest the existence of quark stars.[19] It has been suggested that the collapsed core of supernova SN1987A may be a quark star.[20][21]

In 2015, Z.G. Dai et al. from Nanjing University suggested that Supernova ASASSN-15lh is a newborn strange quark star.[22]

Other theorized quark formations

Apart from ordinary quark matter and strange quark matter, other types of quark-gluon plasma might theoretically occur or be formed inside neutron stars and quark stars. This includes the following, some of which has been observed and studied in laboratories:

See also

Sources and further reading

References

  1. ↑ D. D. Ivanenko; D. F. Kurdgelaidze (1965). "Hypothesis concerning quark stars". Astrophysics. 1: 251–252. Bibcode:1965Ap......1..251I. doi:10.1007/BF01042830.
  2. ↑ D. D. Ivanenko; D. F. Kurdgelaidze (1969). "Remarks on quark stars". Lettere al Nuovo Cimento. 2: 13–16. Bibcode:1969NCimL...2...13I. doi:10.1007/BF02753988.
  3. 1 2 Shapiro and Teukolsky: Black Holes, White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars: The Physics of Compact Objects, Wiley 2008
  4. ↑ Blaschke et.al "Physics of neutron star interiors"
  5. 1 2 3 4 Witten, Edward (1984). "Cosmic separation of phases". Physical Review D. 30 (2): 272–285. Bibcode:1984PhRvD..30..272W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.30.272.
  6. ↑ E. Farhi; R. L. Jaffe (1984). "Strange matter". Physical Review D. 30: 2379. Bibcode:1984PhRvD..30.2379F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.30.2379.
  7. 1 2 Fridolin Weber; et al. (1994). "Strange-matter Stars". Proceedings: Strangeness and Quark Matter. World Scientific.
  8. ↑ On the formation of strange stars and related subjects: Glendenning, N. K. (1989). "Strange-quark-matter stars". U.S. Dept. of Energy. Retrieved 16 December 2015. One of the early thorough publications.
  9. ↑ Mark G. Alford, Sophia Han and Madappa Prakash (2013). "Generic conditions for stable hybrid stars". Phys. Rev. D 88, 083013. arXiv:1302.4732Freely accessible. Bibcode:2013PhRvD..88h3013A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.88.083013.
  10. ↑ Ashok Goyal (March 2014). "Hybrid stars" (PDF). Pramana. Indian Academy of Sciences. 62 (3): 753–56. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
  11. ↑ Sanjin Benic, David Blaschke, David E. Alvarez-Castillo, Tobias Fischer, Stefan Typel (2015). "A new quark-hadron hybrid equation of state for astrophysics - I. High-mass twin compact stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 577 A40. arXiv:1411.2856Freely accessible. Bibcode:2015A&A...577A..40B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425318.
  12. ↑ D. E. Alvarez-Castillo, S. Benic, D. Blaschke, Sophia Han, S. Typel (2016). "Neutron star mass limit at 2M⊙ supports the existence of a CEP". Eur. Phys. J. A 52: 232. arXiv:1608.02425Freely accessible. Bibcode:2016EPJA...52..232A. doi:10.1140/epja/i2016-16232-9.
  13. ↑ Alford, Mark G.; Schmitt, Andreas; Rajagopal, Krishna; Schäfer, Thomas (2008). "Color superconductivity in dense quark matter". Review of Modern Physics. 80 (4): 1455–1515. arXiv:0709.4635Freely accessible. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80.1455A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.1455.
  14. ↑ Jaikumar, Prashanth; Reddy, Sanjay; Steiner, Andrew (2006). "Strange Star Surface: A Crust with Nuggets". Physical Review Letters. 96 (4). arXiv:nucl-th/0507055Freely accessible. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..96d1101J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.041101.
  15. ↑ Alford, Mark; Rajagopal, Krishna; Reddy, Sanjay; Steiner, Andrew (2006). "Stability of strange star crusts and strangelets". Physical Review D. 73 (11). arXiv:hep-ph/0604134Freely accessible. Bibcode:2006PhRvD..73k4016A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.73.114016.
  16. ↑ Truemper, J. E.; Burwitz, V.; Haberl, F.; Zavlin, V. E. (June 2004). "The puzzles of RX J1856.5-3754: neutron star or quark star?". Nuclear Physics B Proceedings Supplements. 132: 560–565. arXiv:astro-ph/0312600Freely accessible. Bibcode:2004NuPhS.132..560T. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.04.094.
  17. ↑ Fastest spinning star may have exotic heart
  18. ↑ http://cds.cern.ch/record/935794/files/0603468.pdf?version=2
  19. ↑ Astronomy Now Online – Second Supernovae Point to Quark Stars
  20. ↑ Chan; Cheng; Harko; Lau; Lin; Suen; Tian (2009). "Could the compact remnant of SN 1987A be a quark star?". Astrophysical Journal. 695: 732–746. arXiv:0902.0653Freely accessible. Bibcode:2009ApJ...695..732C. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/1/732.
  21. ↑ Quark star may hold secret to early universe New Scientist
  22. ↑ Dai, Z. G.; Wang, S. Q.; Wang, J. S.; Wang, L. J.; Yu, Y. W. (2015-08-31). "The Most Luminous Supernova ASASSN-15lh: Signature of a Newborn Rapidly-Rotating Strange Quark Star". arXiv:1508.07745Freely accessible [astro-ph].
  23. ↑ H1 Collaboration; Aktas, A.; Andreev, V.; Anthonis, T.; Asmone, A.; Babaev, A.; Backovic, S.; Bähr, J.; et al. (2004). "Evidence for a Narrow Anti-Charmed Baryon State of mass". Physics Letters B. 588: 17–28. arXiv:hep-ex/0403017Freely accessible. Bibcode:2004PhLB..588...17A. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2004.03.012.
  24. ↑ Brian Koberlein (April 10, 2014). "How CERN's Discovery of Exotic Particles May Affect Astrophysics". Universe Today. Retrieved 14 April 2014./
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