Tutelo language

Not to be confused with the Saponi language of Indonesia.
Tutelo
Tutelo-Saponi
Native to United States
Region Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina
Ethnicity Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, Manahoac, Monacan
Extinct 1980s[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3 tta
Linguist list
 tta
Glottolog tute1247[2]

Tutelo, also known as Tutelo–Saponi, is a member of the Virginian branch of Siouan languages that was originally spoken in what is now Virginia and West Virginia, as well as in the later travels of the speakers through North Carolina, Pennsylvania, New York, and finally, Ontario.

The last fluent full-blooded speaker, Nikonha, died in 1871 at age 106, but managed to impart about 100 words of vocabulary to the ethnologist Horatio Hale, who had visited him at Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation Ontario the year before.[3][4] However, knowledge of the language and grammar was preserved by persons of mixed Tutelo and Cayuga descent at Grand River well into the twentieth century, and was recorded by Hale and other scholars including J. N. B. Hewitt, James Owen Dorsey, Leo J. Frachtenberg, Edward Sapir, Frank Speck, and Marianne Mithun.[5]

Documentation

Hale published a brief grammar and vocabulary in 1883, and confirmed the language as Siouan through comparisons with Dakota and Hidatsa.[3] His excitement at finding an ancient Dakotan tongue once widespread in Virginia, to be preserved on an Iroquois reserve in Ontario, was considerable.[6] Previously, the only recorded information on the language had been a short list of words and phrases collected by Lt. John Fontaine at Fort Christanna in 1716, and a few assorted terms recorded by colonial sources such as John Lederer, Abraham Wood, Hugh Jones, and William Byrd II. Hale noted the testimony of colonial historian Robert Beverley, Jr. that the presumably related dialect of the Occaneechi was used as a lingua franca by all the tribes in the region of whatever linguistic stock, and was known to the chiefs, "conjurers", and priests of all tribes, who even used it in their ceremonies, just as European priests used Latin. Hale's grammar also noted further comparisons to Latin and ancient Greek in terms of the classical nature of Tutelo's rich variety of verb tenses available to the speaker, including what he remarked as an 'aorist' perfect verb tense ending in "-wa".[3]

James Dorsey, another Siouan linguist, collected extensive vocabulary and grammar samples around the same time as Hale, as did Hewitt a few years later. Frachtenberg and Sapir both visited in the first decade of the 1900s and found only a handful of words were still remembered, by a very few Cayuga of Tutelo ancestry. Speck did much fieldwork in preserving their traditions in the 1930s, but found little of the speech remaining. Mithun managed to collect a handful of terms still remembered in 1980.[5]

The Tutelo language as preserved by these efforts is now believed to have been mutually intelligible with, if not identical to, the speech of other Virginia Siouan groups in general, including the Monacan and Manahoac and Nahyssan confederacies, as well as the subdivisions of Occaneechi, Saponi, etc.

In the 21st century there has been interest, especially among descendants of these original native groups, in contemporary language revitalization.[7]

Phonology

Oliverio proposes the following analysis of the sound system of Tutelo:[8]

Consonants

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive plain p t k ʔ
aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ
Affricate plain tʃ
aspirated tʃʰ
Fricative s ʃ x h
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Approximant w j

Vowels

Tutelo has a standard vowel inventory of Siouan. Proto-Siouan *ũ and *ũː has lowered to /õ/ and /õː/, respectively.

Oral vowels

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
High i iː u uː
Mid e eː o oː
Low a aː

Nasal vowels

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
High ĩ ĩː
Mid õ õː
Low ã ãː

Grammar

Independent personal pronouns, as recorded by Dorsey, are:

The pronoun Huk "all" may be added to form the plurals Mimahuk "we" and Yimahuk "ye", while "they" is Imahese.

In verbal conjugations, the subject pronouns are represented by various prefixes, infixes, and or suffixes, usually as follows:

An example as given by Hale is the verb Yandosteka "love", where the infix appears between yando- and -steka:

The last form includes the common additional tense suffix -se which literally conveys the progressive tense. There are also 'stative' classes of verbs that take the 'passive' (oblique) pronoun affixes (mi- or wi-, yi- etc.) as subjects.

Additional tenses can be employed through the use of other suffixes including -ka (past), -ta (future), -wa (aorist or perfect), -kewa (past perfect), and -ma (perfect progressive). The rules for combining these suffixes with stems in final vowels are slightly complex.[5]

References

  1. ↑ Tutelo at MultiTree on the Linguist List
  2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Tutelo". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  3. 1 2 3 Horatio Hale, "Tutelo Tribe and Language", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 21, no. 114 (1883)
  4. ↑ Hale, Horatio (2001). The Tutelo Language. American Language Reprints. 23. Merchantville: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758213.
  5. 1 2 3 Giulia Oliverio, "Tutelo Grammar and Dictionary", 1996 (PhD. thesis) pp. 6–19.
  6. ↑ Robert Vest, 2006, "Letters of Chief Samuel Johns to Frank G Speck".
  7. ↑ "Tutelo Language: Revitalization of the Tutelo Language, saponitown.com". External link in |title= (help);
  8. ↑ Oliverio, Giulia R.M. (1996). A Grammar and Dictionary of Tutelo. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas dissertation.
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