Perspective-taking

Perspective-taking is the act of viewing a situation or understanding of a concept from an alternate point-of-view.

Definition

Perspective-taking is the process by which an individual views a situation from another's point-of-view.^[1] Perspective-taking can occur visually^[2] in that one changes their physical location to see things as someone else does. Perspective-taking can also occur cognitively in that one mentally simulates the point-of-view of another’s cognitive state. For instance, one can visualize the viewpoint of a taller individual (physical state) or reflect upon another's point-of-view on a particular concept (cognitive state). In other words, perspective-taking is the process of temporarily suspending ^[3][4] one’s own point-of-view in an attempt to view a situation as someone else might. A number of strategies used for taking another’s perspective have been identified, included imagining oneself in the other’s place, using one’s own similar past experience to understand another’s situation, and utilizing general knowledge (e.g. stereotypes) about how people are likely to react in particular situations.^[5][6] This process does not necessitate any form of affinity, compassion, or emotional identification with the other. Therefore, as an other-oriented activity, perspective-taking can be used to gain an understanding of a given physical state and/or situation after which a determination of appropriate action can be selected (e.g., empathy).^[7] Perspective taking ability appears to be greater in adults than children, because adults are more able to correct and adopt the perspective of another person.^[8]

Perspective-taking vs. empathy

It is important to understand that perspective-taking is exclusively the process of taking an alternate point-of-view. For example, one can perspective-take a fellow individual’s thoughts and feelings. However, the perspective-taking process does not necessarily lead to feelings of empathy. Rather, that determination may be made after the perspective-taking process has concluded. To demonstrate this point, Davis^[9] cites 18th century Scottish philosopher Adam Smith and 19th century British anthropologist and sociologist Herbert Spencer. Both Smith and Spencer wrote about perspective-taking as a "cognitive, intellectual reaction" and empathy as a "visceral, emotional reaction" (p. 113). Because this differentiation is commonly overlooked, perspective-taking is frequently conflated with empathy. For this reason, the use of perspective-taking and empathy as synonyms is decidedly prevalent within the scientific literature^[1]

Push for term specificity

As research has explicated the perspective-taking and empathic processes, there has been a push to differentiate between these activities. For instance, Farrant, Devine, Maybery, and Fletcher^[10] set forth a definition of empathy that includes the perspective-taking process; however, it is referred to as cognitive empathy. Similarly, Ashton and Fuehrer^[11] use the term ‘affective perspective-taking’ to describe the empathy construct. Even though researchers are striving to differentiate between these processes, conflation of these terms remains common in the scientific literature.

Benefits/applications of perspective-taking

The benefits and applications of perspective-taking show themselves in a wide variety of situations. Several studies indicate that perspective-taking has a positive impact on social interactions and relations.

• Brings awareness to issues between disparate groups^[12]
  • Consideration of the perspective of an out-group member increases identification with those individuals, which increases the likelihood of dominant group members to perceive a behavior/situation as discriminatory.
• Facilitates in-group/out-group exchanges^[13]
  • Perspective-taking reduces stereotype bias of out-group members and decreases in-group bias.
• Increases individuals’ willingness to interact with out-group participants^[14]
  • Perspective-taking is a precursor to intergroup contact as distance in seating is significantly decreased between in-group and out-group members.
• Provides an advantage in negotiations^[1]
  • Perspective-taking allows negotiators to view the dynamic from the opposing side's point-of-view, which allows for the anticipation of opponents’ preferences and decisions.
  • In sales negotiations, both perspective-taking and empathy by buyers leads to greater satisfaction of sellers; however, perspective-taking buyers achieve better deals than empathizing buyers.

References

1. 1 2 3 Galinsky, A., Maddux, W., Gilin, D., & White, J. (2008). Why it pays to get inside the head of your opponent. Psychological Science, 19(4), 378-384. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02096.x
2. ↑ Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1967). The child's conception of space. Routledge: London.
3. ↑ Epley, N., & Caruso, E. M. (2008). Perspective-taking: Misstepping into others' shoes. In K. D. Markman, W. M. Klein, & J. A. Suhr (Eds.), Handbook of imagination and mental simulation (pp. 297-311). New York: Psychology Press.
4. ↑ Moore, D.A. (2005). Myopic biases in strategic social prediction: Why deadlines put everyone under more pressure than everyone else. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(5), 668-679. doi: 10.1177/0146167204271569
5. ↑ Gerace, A.; Day, A.; Casey, S.; Mohr, P. (2013). "An exploratory investigation of the process of perspective taking in interpersonal situations". Journal of Relationships Research. 4: e6, 1–12. doi:10.1017/jrr.2013.6. 
6. ↑ Gerace, A.; Day, A.; Casey, S.; Mohr, P. (2015). "Perspective taking and empathy: Does having similar past experience to another person make it easier to take their perspective?". Journal of Relationships Research. 6: e10, 1–14. doi:10.1017/jrr.2015.6. 
7. ↑ Batson, C. D., Early, S., & Salvarani, G. (1997). Perspective taking: Imagining how another feels versus imagining how you would feel. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 751-758. doi: 10.1177/0146167297237008
8. ↑ Epley, Nicholas; Morewedge, Carey K; Keysar, Boaz (2004-11-01). "Perspective taking in children and adults: Equivalent egocentrism but differential correction". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 40 (6): 760–768. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.02.002. 
9. ↑ Davis, M. H., (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113-126.
10. ↑ Farrant, B. M., Devine, T. A., Maybery, M. T., & Fletcher, J. F, (2012). Empathy, perspective taking, and prosocial behavior: The important of parenting practices. Infant and Child Development, 21, 175-188.
11. ↑ Ashton, W. A. & Fuehrer A., (1993). Effects of gender and gender role identification of participant and type of social support. Sex Roles, 28, 461-476.
12. ↑ Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Perspective-taking combats the denial of group discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48, 738-745. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.011
13. ↑ Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708
14. ↑ Wang, C. S., Tai, K., Ku, G., & Galinsky, A. D. (2014). Perspective-taking increases willingness to engage in intergroup contact. PloS one, 9(1), e85681. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085681