Paris Agreement

Paris Agreement
Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

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  Parties
  Signatories
  Parties also covered by European Union ratification
  Signatories also covered by European Union ratification
Drafted 30 November – 12 December 2015
Signed 22 April 2016
Location New York
Sealed 12 December 2015
Effective 4 November 2016[1][2]
Condition Ratification/Accession by 55 UNFCCC Parties, accounting for 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions
Signatories 193[1]
Parties 115[1]
Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations
Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish
Paris Agreement at Wikisource

The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015.[3][4] It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day) at a ceremony in New York.[5] As of November 2016, 193 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty, 115 of which have ratified it. After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016, there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force.[6] The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016.[2]

The head of the Paris Conference, France's foreign minister Laurent Fabius, said this "ambitious and balanced" plan is a "historic turning point" in the goal of reducing global warming.[7]

One year on, the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe, Paris' most iconic monuments, in green.[8]

Content

Aims

The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the UNFCCC through:[9]

"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development."

Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible". The agreement has been described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.[10][11]

The Paris deal is the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement.[12]

Nationally determined contributions and their limits

The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs).[13] Article 3 requires them to be "ambitious", "represent a progression over time" and set "with the view to achieving the purpose of this Agreement". The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat.[14] Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of 'progression'.[15] Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve—unless provided otherwise—as the initial Nationally determined contribution.

The level of NDCs set by each country[16] will set that country's targets. However the 'contributions' themselves are not binding as a matter of international law, as they lack the specificity, normative character, or obligatory language necessary to create binding norms.[17] Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to force[18] a country to set a target in their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a set target in an NDC is not met.[16][19] There will be only a "name and shame" system[20] or as János Pásztor, the U.N. assistant secretary-general on climate change, told CBS News (US), a "name and encourage" plan.[21] As the agreement provides no consequences if countries do not meet their commitments, consensus of this kind is fragile. A trickle of nations exiting the agreement may trigger the withdrawal of more governments, bringing about a total collapse of the agreement.[22]

The negotiators of the Agreement however stated that the NDCs and the 2 °C reduction target were insufficient, instead, a 1.5 °C target is required, noting "with concern that the estimated aggregate greenhouse gas emission levels in 2025 and 2030 resulting from the intended nationally determined contributions do not fall within least-cost 2 ̊C scenarios but rather lead to a projected level of 55 gigatonnes in 2030", and recognizing furthermore "that much greater emission reduction efforts will be required in order to hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 ̊C by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 ̊C".[23]

Although not the sustained temperatures over the long term to which the Agreement addresses, in the first half of 2016 average temperatures were about 1.3 °C (2.3 degrees Fahrenheit) above the average in 1880, when global record-keeping began.[24]

When the agreement achieved enough signatures to cross the threshold on October 5, 2016, US President Barack Obama claimed that "Even if we meet every target, we will only get to part of where we need to go," and that "This agreement will help delay or avoid some of the worse consequences of climate change will help other nations ratchet down their emissions over time."[25]

Global stocktake

The global stocktake will kick off with a “facilitative dialogue” in 2018. At this convening, parties will evaluate how their NDCs stack up to the nearer-term goal of peaking global emissions and the long-term goal of achieving net zero emissions by the second half of this century.[26]

The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every 5 years, with the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new nationally determined contributions of member states.[27] The stocktake will not be of contributions/achievements of individual countries but a collective analysis of what has been achieved and what more needs to be done.

The stocktake works as part of the Paris Agreement’s effort to create a “ratcheting up” of ambition in emissions cuts. Because analysts have agreed that the current NDCs will not limit rising temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius, the global stocktake reconvenes parties to assess how their new NDCs must evolve so that they continually reflect a country’s “highest possible ambition”.[26]

While ratcheting up the ambition of NDCs is a major aim of the global stocktake, it assesses efforts beyond mitigation. The 5 year reviews will also evaluate adaptation, climate finance provisions, and technology development and transfer.[26]

Structure

The Paris Agreement has a 'bottom up' structure in contrast to most international environmental law treaties which are 'top down', characterised by standards and targets set internationally, for states to implement.[28] Unlike its predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have legal force, the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on consensus-building, allows for voluntary and nationally determined targets.[29] The specific climate goals are thus politically encouraged, rather than legally bound. Only the processes governing the reporting and review of these goals are mandated under international law. This structure is especially notable for the United States—because there are no legal mitigation or finance targets, the agreement is considered an “executive agreement rather than a treaty”. Because the UNFCCC treaty of 1992 received the consent of the Senate, this new agreement does not require further legislation from Congress for it to take effect.[29]

Another key difference between Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol is its scope. While the Kyoto Protocol differentiated between Annex-1 and non-Annex-1 countries, this bifurcation is blurred in the Paris Agreement, as all parties will be required to submit emissions reductions plans.[30] While the Paris Agreement still emphasizes the principle of “Common but Differentiated Responsibility”—the acknowledgement that different nations have different capacities and duties to climate action—it does not provide a specific division between developed and developing nations.[30]

Mitigation Provisions and Carbon Markets

Article 6 has been flagged as containing some of the key provisions of the Paris Agreement.[31] Broadly, it outlines the cooperative approaches that parties can take in achieving their nationally determined carbon emissions reductions. In doing so, it helps establish the Paris Agreement as a framework for a global carbon market.[32]

Linkages and ITMOs

Paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3 establish a framework to govern the international transfer of mitigation outcomes (ITMOs). The Agreement recognizes the rights of Parties to use emissions reductions outside of their own jurisdiction toward their NDC, in a system of carbon accounting and trading.[32]

This provision requires the “linkage” of various carbon emissions trading systems—because measured emissions reductions must avoid “double counting”, transferred mitigation outcomes must be recorded as a gain of emission units for one party and a reduction of emission units for the other.[31] Because the NDCs, and domestic carbon trading schemes, are heterogenous, the ITMOs will provide a format for global linkage under the auspices of the UNFCCC.[33] The provision thus also creates a pressure for countries to adopt emissions management systems—if a country wants to use more cost-effective cooperative approaches to achieve their NDCs, they will need to monitor carbon units for their economies.[34]

The Sustainable Development Mechanism

Paragraphs 6.4-6.7 establish a mechanism "to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gases and support sustainable development".[35] Though there is no specific name for the mechanism as yet, many Parties and observers have informally coalesced around the name "Sustainable Development Mechanism" or "SDM".[36][37] The SDM is considered to be the successor to the Clean Development Mechanism, a flexible mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, by which parties could collaboratively pursue emissions reductions for their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. The Sustainable Development Mechanism lays the framework for the future of the Clean Development Mechanism post-Kyoto (in 2020).

In its basic aim, the SDM will largely resemble the Clean Development Mechanism, with the dual mission to 1. contribute to global GHG emissions reductions and 2. support sustainable development.[38] The structure and the processes governing the SDM are not yet determined, certain similarities and differences from the Clean Development Mechanism can already be seen. Notably, the SDM, unlike the Clean Development Mechanism, will be available to all parties as opposed to only Annex-1 parties, making it much wider in scope.[39]

Since the Kyoto Protocol went into force, the Clean Development Mechanism has been criticized for failing to produce either meaningful emissions reductions or sustainable development benefits in most instances.[40] It has also suffered from the low price of Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs), creating less demand for projects. These criticisms have motivated the recommendations of various stakeholders, who have provided through working groups and reports, new elements they hope to see in SDM that will bolster its success.[33] The specifics of the governance structure, project proposal modalities, and overall design are expected to come during the next Conference of the Parties in Marrakesh.

Adaptation Provisions

Adaptation issues garnered more focus in the formation of the Paris Agreement. Collective, long-term adaptation goals are included in the Agreement, and countries must report on their adaptation actions, making adaptation a parallel component of the agreement with mitigation.[41] The adaptation goals focus on enhancing adaptive capacity, increasing resilience, and limiting vulnerability.[42]

Ensuring Finance

Not part of the Paris Agreement (and not legally binding)[43] is a plan to provide US$100 billion a year in aid to developing countries for implementing new procedures to minimize climate change with additional amounts to be provided in subsequent years.[44] Though both mitigation and adaptation require increased climate financing, adaptation has typically received a disproportionately low level of support.[41] A 2014 report by the OECD found that just 16 percent of global finance was directed toward climate adaptation in 2014.[29]

The Paris Agreement attempts to address the deficit by calling for a balance of climate finance between adaptation and mitigation, and specifically underscoring the need to increase adaptation support for parties most vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States. The agreement also reminds parties of the importance of public grants, because adaptation measures receive less investment from the public sector.[41] John Kerry, as Secretary of State, announced that grant-based adaptation finance would double by 2020.[29]

Some specific outcomes of the elevated attention to adaptation financing in Paris include the G7 countries’ announcement to provide US $420 million for Climate Risk Insurance, and the launching of a Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS) Initiative.[45] In early March 2016, the Obama administration gave a $500 million grant to the "Green Climate Fund" as "the first chunk of a $3 billion commitment made at the Paris climate talks."[46][47][52]So far, the Green Climate Fund has now received over $10 billion in pledges. Notably, the pledges come from developed nations like France, the US, and Japan, but also from developing countries such as Mexico, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[29]

Loss and Damage

A new issue that emerged as a focal point in the Paris negotiations rose from the fact that many of the worst effects of climate change will be too severe or come too quickly to be avoided by adaptation measures.[48] The Paris Agreement specifically acknowledges the need to address loss and damage of this kind, and aims to find appropriate responses.[48] It specifies that loss and damage can take various forms—both as immediate impacts from extreme weather events, and slow onset impacts, such as the loss of land to sea-level rise for low-lying islands.[29]

The push to address loss and damage as a distinct issue in the Paris Agreement came from the Alliance of Small Island States and the Least Developed Countries, whose economies and livelihoods are most vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change.[29] Developed countries, however, worried that classifying the issue as one separate and beyond adaptation measures would create yet another climate finance provision, or might imply legal liability for catastrophic climate events.

In the end, all parties acknowledged the need for “averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage” but notably excludes any mention of compensation or liability.[9] The agreement also adopts the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, an institution that will attempt to address questions about how to classify, address, and share responsibility for loss and damage.[48]

Enhanced Transparency Framework

While each Party’s NDC is not legally binding, the Parties’ are legally bound to have their progress tracked by technical expert review to assess achievement toward the NDC, and to determine ways to strengthen ambition.[49] Article 13 of the Paris Agreement articulates an “enhanced transparency framework for action and support” that establishes harmonized monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) requirements. Thus, both developed and developing nations must report every two years on their mitigation efforts, and all parties will be subject to both technical and peer review.[49]

Flexibility Mechanisms

While the enhanced transparency framework is universal, along with the global stocktaking to occur every 5 years, the framework is meant to provide “built-in flexibility” to distinguish between developed and developing countries’ capacities. In conjunction with this, the Paris Agreement has provisions for an enhanced framework for capacity building.[50] The agreement recognizes the varying circumstances of some countries, and specifically notes that the technical expert review for each country consider that country’s specific capacity for reporting.[50] The agreement also develops a Capacity-Building Initiative for Transparency to assist developing countries in building the necessary institutions and processes for complying with the transparency framework.[50]

There are several ways in which flexibility mechanisms can be incorporated into the enhanced transparency framework. The scope, level of detail, or frequency of reporting may all be adjusted and tiered based on a country’s capacity. The requirement for in-country technical reviews could be lifted for some less developed or small island developing countries. Ways to assess capacity include financial and human resources in a country necessary for NDC review.[50]

Adoption

Negotiations

Within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, legal instruments may be adopted to reach the goals of the convention. For the period from 2008 to 2012, greenhouse gas reduction measures were agreed in the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The scope of the protocol was extended until 2020 with the Doha Amendment to that protocol in 2012.[51]

During the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference, the Durban Platform (and the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action) was established with the aim to negotiate a legal instrument governing climate change mitigation measures from 2020. The resulting agreement was to be adopted in 2015.[52]

Adoption

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris.

At the conclusion of COP 21 (the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which guides the Conference), on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris Agreement was adopted by consensus by all of the 195 UNFCCC participating member states and the European Union[3] to reduce emissions as part of the method for reducing greenhouse gas. In the 12 page Agreement,[53] the members promised to reduce their carbon output "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "to well below 2 degrees C" [3.6 degrees F].[54]

Signature and entry into force

Signing by John Kerry in United Nations General Assembly Hall for the United States

The Paris Agreement is open for signature by States and regional economic integration organizations that are Parties to the UNFCCC (the Convention) from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017 at the UN Headquarters in New York.[55]

The agreement stated that it would enter into force (and thus become fully effective) only if 55 countries that produce at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (according to a list produced in 2015)[56] ratify, accept, approve or accede to the agreement.[57][58] On 1 April 2016, the United States and China, which together represent almost 40% of global emissions, issued a joint statement confirming that both countries would sign the Paris Climate Agreement.[59][60] 175 Parties (174 states and the European Union) signed the treaty on the first date it was open for signature.[5][61] On the same day, more than 20 countries issued a statement of their intent to join as soon as possible with a view to joining in 2016. With ratification by the European Union, the Agreement obtained enough parties to enter into effect as of 4 November 2016.

European Union and its member states

Both the EU and its member states are individually responsible for ratifying the Paris Agreement. A strong preference was reported that the EU and its 28 member states deposit their instruments of ratification at the same time to ensure that neither the EU nor its member states engage themselves to fulfilling obligations that strictly belong to the other,[62] and there were fears that disagreement over each individual member state's share of the EU-wide reduction target, as well as Britain's vote to leave the EU might delay the Paris pact.[63] However, the European Parliament approved ratification of the Paris Agreement on 4 October 2016,[6] and the EU deposited its instruments of ratification on 5 October 2016, along with several individual EU member states.[63]

Parties and signatories

As of November 2016, 192 states and the European Union have signed the Agreement. 115 of those parties have ratified or acceded to the Agreement, most notably China, the United States and India, the countries with three of the largest greenhouse gas emissions of the signatories' total (about 42% together).[1][64][65]

Party or signatory[1] Percentage of greenhouse
gases for ratification[56]		 Date of signature Date of deposit of instruments
of ratification or accession		 Date when agreement
enters into force
 Afghanistan 0.05% 22 April 2016
 Albania 0.02% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Algeria 0.30% 22 April 2016 20 October 2016 19 November 2016
 Andorra 0.00% 22 April 2016
 Angola 0.17% 22 April 2016
 Antigua and Barbuda 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Argentina 0.89% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Armenia 0.02% 20 September 2016
 Australia 1.46% 22 April 2016 9 November 2016 9 December 2016
 Austria 0.21% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Azerbaijan 0.13% 22 April 2016
 Bahamas, The 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 August 2016 4 November 2016
 Bahrain 0.06% 22 April 2016
 Bangladesh 0.27% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Barbados 0.01% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Belarus 0.24% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Belgium 0.32% 22 April 2016
 Belize 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Benin 0.02% 22 April 2016 31 October 2016 30 November 2016
 Bhutan 0.00% 22 April 2016
 Bolivia 0.12% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.08% 22 April 2016
 Botswana 0.02% 22 April 2016 11 November 2016 11 December 2016
 Brazil 2.48% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Brunei —[lower-alpha 1] 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Bulgaria 0.15% 22 April 2016 29 November 2016 29 December 2016
 Burkina Faso 0.06% 22 April 2016 11 November 2016 11 December 2016
 Burundi 0.07% 22 April 2016
 Cambodia 0.03% 22 April 2016
 Cameroon 0.45% 22 April 2016 29 July 2016 4 November 2016
 Canada 1.95% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Cape Verde 0.00% 22 April 2016
 Central African Republic 0.01% 22 April 2016 11 October 2016 10 November 2016
 Chad 0.06% 22 April 2016
 Chile[66] 0.25% 20 September 2016
 China 20.09% 22 April 2016 3 September 2016[64][67] 4 November 2016
 Colombia 0.41% 22 April 2016
 Comoros 0.00% 22 April 2016 23 November 2016 23 December 2016
 Congo, Democratic Republic of the 0.06% 22 April 2016
 Congo, Republic of the 0.01% 22 April 2016
 Cook Islands 0.00% 24 June 2016 1 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Costa Rica 0.03% 22 April 2016 13 October 2016 12 November 2016
 Côte d'Ivoire 0.73% 22 April 2016 25 October 2016 24 November 2016
 Croatia 0.07% 22 April 2016
 Cuba 0.10% 22 April 2016
 Cyprus 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Czech Republic 0.34% 22 April 2016
 Denmark[68] 0.15% 22 April 2016 1 November 2016 1 December 2016
 Djibouti 0.00% 22 April 2016 11 November 2016 11 December 2016
 Dominica 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Dominican Republic 0.07% 22 April 2016
 East Timor 0.00% 22 April 2016
 Ecuador 0.67% 26 July 2016
 Egypt 0.52% 22 April 2016
 El Salvador 0.03% 22 April 2016
 Equatorial Guinea —[lower-alpha 1] 22 April 2016
 Eritrea 0.01% 22 April 2016
 Estonia 0.06% 22 April 2016 4 November 2016 4 December 2016
 Ethiopia 0.13% 22 April 2016
 European Union —[lower-alpha 2] 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Fiji 0.01% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Finland 0.17% 22 April 2016 14 November 2016 14 December 2016
 France 1.34% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Gabon 0.02% 22 April 2016 2 November 2016 2 December 2016
 Gambia, The 0.05% 26 April 2016 7 November 2016 7 December 2016
 Georgia 0.03% 22 April 2016
 Germany 2.56% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Ghana 0.09% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Greece 0.28% 22 April 2016 14 October 2016 13 November 2016
 Grenada 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Guatemala 0.04% 22 April 2016
 Guinea 0.01% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Guinea-Bissau 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Guyana 0.01% 22 April 2016 20 May 2016 4 November 2016
 Haiti 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Honduras 0.03% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Hungary 0.15% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Iceland 0.01% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 India 4.10% 22 April 2016 2 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Indonesia 1.49% 22 April 2016 31 October 2016 30 November 2016
 Iran 1.30% 22 April 2016
 Ireland 0.16% 22 April 2016 4 November 2016 4 December 2016
 Israel 0.20% 22 April 2016 22 November 2016 22 December 2016
 Italy 1.18% 22 April 2016 11 November 2016 11 December 2016
 Jamaica 0.04% 22 April 2016
 Japan 3.79% 22 April 2016 8 November 2016 8 December 2016
 Jordan 0.07% 22 April 2016 4 November 2016 4 December 2016
 Kazakhstan 0.84% 2 August 2016
 Kenya 0.06% 22 April 2016
 Kiribati 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Korea, North 0.23% 22 April 2016 1 August 2016 4 November 2016
 Korea, South 1.85% 22 April 2016 3 November 2016 3 December 2016
 Kuwait 0.09% 22 April 2016
 Kyrgyzstan 0.03% 21 September 2016
 Laos 0.02% 22 April 2016 7 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Latvia 0.03% 22 April 2016
 Lebanon 0.07% 22 April 2016
 Lesotho 0.01% 22 April 2016
 Liberia 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Libya —[lower-alpha 1] 22 April 2016
 Liechtenstein 0.00% 22 April 2016
 Lithuania 0.05% 22 April 2016
 Luxembourg 0.03% 22 April 2016 4 November 2016 4 December 2016
 Macedonia, Republic of 0.03% 22 April 2016
 Madagascar 0.08% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Malawi 0.07% 20 September 2016
 Malaysia 0.52% 22 April 2016 16 November 2016 16 December 2016
 Maldives 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Mali 0.03% 22 April 2016 23 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Malta 0.01% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Marshall Islands 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Mauritania 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Mauritius 0.01% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Mexico 1.70% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Micronesia 0.00% 22 April 2016 15 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Moldova 0.04% 21 September 2016
 Monaco 0.00% 22 April 2016 24 October 2016 23 November 2016
 Mongolia 0.05% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Montenegro 0.01% 22 April 2016
 Morocco 0.16% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Mozambique 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Myanmar 0.10% 22 April 2016
 Namibia 0.01% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Nauru 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
   Nepal 0.07% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Netherlands 0.53% 22 April 2016
 New Zealand[69] 0.22% 22 April 2016 4 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Niger 0.04% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Nigeria 0.57% 22 September 2016
 Niue 0.01% 28 October 2016 28 October 2016 27 November 2016
 Norway 0.14% 22 April 2016 20 June 2016 4 November 2016
 Oman 0.06% 22 April 2016
 Pakistan 0.43% 22 April 2016 10 November 2016 10 December 2016
 Palau 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Palestine —[lower-alpha 3] 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Panama 0.03% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Papua New Guinea 0.01% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Paraguay 0.06% 22 April 2016 14 October 2016 13 November 2016
 Peru 0.22% 22 April 2016 25 July 2016 4 November 2016
 Philippines 0.34% 22 April 2016
 Poland 1.06% 22 April 2016 7 October 2016 6 November 2016
 Portugal 0.18% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Qatar 0.17% 22 April 2016
 Romania 0.30% 22 April 2016
 Russia 7.53% 22 April 2016
 Rwanda 0.02% 22 April 2016 6 October 2016 5 November 2016
 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Saint Lucia 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.00% 22 April 2016 29 June 2016 4 November 2016
 Samoa 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 San Marino 0.00% 22 April 2016
 São Tomé and Príncipe 0.00% 22 April 2016 2 November 2016 2 December 2016
 Saudi Arabia 0.80% 3 November 2016 3 November 2016 3 December 2016
 Senegal 0.05% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Serbia 0.18% 22 April 2016
 Seychelles 0.00% 25 April 2016 29 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Sierra Leone 0.98%† 22 September 2016 1 November 2016 1 December 2016
 Singapore 0.13% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Slovakia 0.12% 22 April 2016 5 October 2016 4 November 2016
 Slovenia 0.05% 22 April 2016
 Solomon Islands 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Somalia —[lower-alpha 1] 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 South Africa 1.46% 22 April 2016 1 November 2016 1 December 2016
 South Sudan —[lower-alpha 1] 22 April 2016
 Spain 0.87% 22 April 2016
 Sri Lanka 0.05% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Sudan 0.18% 22 April 2016
 Suriname 0.01% 22 April 2016
 Swaziland 0.05% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Sweden 0.15% 22 April 2016 13 October 2016 12 November 2016
  Switzerland 0.14% 22 April 2016
 Tajikistan 0.02% 22 April 2016
 Tanzania 0.11% 22 April 2016
 Thailand 0.64% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Togo 0.02% 19 September 2016
 Tonga 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Trinidad and Tobago 0.04% 22 April 2016
 Tunisia 0.11% 22 April 2016
 Turkey 1.24% 22 April 2016
 Turkmenistan 0.20% 23 September 2016 20 October 2016 19 November 2016
 Tuvalu 0.00% 22 April 2016 22 April 2016 4 November 2016
 Uganda 0.07% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Ukraine 1.04% 22 April 2016 19 September 2016 4 November 2016
 United Arab Emirates 0.53% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 United Kingdom 1.55% 22 April 2016 18 November 2016 18 December 2016
 United States 17.89% 22 April 2016 3 September 2016[64] 4 November 2016
 Uruguay 0.05% 22 April 2016 19 October 2016 18 November 2016
 Vanuatu 0.00% 22 April 2016 21 September 2016 4 November 2016
 Venezuela 0.52% 22 April 2016
 Vietnam 0.72% 22 April 2016 3 November 2016 3 December 2016
 Yemen 0.07% 23 September 2016
 Zambia 0.04% 20 September 2016
 Zimbabwe 0.18% 22 April 2016
Total 99.00% 193 115[1] (79.11% of global emissions[56])

† Though corresponding with the source the provided number for Sierra Leone's emissions is incorrect. According to World Bank data, the correct 2000 emissions for Sierra Leone is 14,763 kt CO2-equivalents (not 365,107 kt), or 0.04% of the world total (not 0.98%).[71]

Non-signatories

The following UNFCCC member states are entitled to sign the Paris Agreement but have not done so.

Critical reception

UNEP

According to UNEP the emission cut targets in November 2016 will result in temperature rise by 3 °C above pre-industrial levels, far above the 2 °C of the Paris climate agreement.[72]

Perfectible accord

Al Gore stated that "no agreement is perfect, and this one must be strengthened over time, but groups across every sector of society will now begin to reduce dangerous carbon pollution through the framework of this agreement."[73]

According to a study published in Nature in June 2016, current country pledges are too low to lead to a temperature rise below the Paris Agreement temperature limit of "well below 2 °C".[74][75]

Lack of binding enforcement mechanism

Although the agreement was lauded by many, including French President Francois Hollande and UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon,[58] criticism has also surfaced. For example, James Hansen, a former NASA scientist and a climate change expert, voiced anger that most of the agreement consists of "promises" or aims and not firm commitments.[76]

Institutional asset owners associations and think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) have also observed that the stated objectives of the Paris Agreement are implicitly "predicated upon an assumption – that member states of the United Nations, including high polluters such as China, the US, India, Brazil, Canada, Russia, Indonesia and Australia, which generate more than half the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, will somehow drive down their carbon pollution voluntarily and assiduously without any binding enforcement mechanism to measure and control CO2 emissions at any level from factory to state, and without any specific penalty gradation or fiscal pressure (for example a carbon tax) to discourage bad behaviour. A shining example of what Roman lawyers called circular logic: an agreement (or argument) presupposing in advance what it wants to achieve."[77]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Emissions of parties to the UNFCCC that had not yet submitted their first national communication to the UNFCCC secretariat with an emissions inventory at the time of adoption of the Paris Agreement were not included in the figure for entry into force of the Agreement.[56]
  2. ↑ The emissions of the European Union are accounted for in the total of its individual member states.
  3. ↑ Emissions of states that were not a party to the UNFCCC at the time of adoption of the Paris Agreement,[70] which were thus not permitted to sign the Agreement, were not included in the totals for entry into force for the Agreement.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Paris Agreement". United Nations Treaty Collection. 8 July 2016.
  2. 1 2 "Paris Climate Agreement Becomes International Law". ABC News.
  3. 1 2 Sutter, John D.; Berlinger, Joshua (12 December 2015). "Final draft of climate deal formally accepted in Paris". CNN. Cable News Network, Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  4. ↑ "Paris climate talks: France releases 'ambitious, balanced' draft agreement at COP21". ABC Australia. 12 December 2015.
  5. 1 2 "'Today is an historic day,' says Ban, as 175 countries sign Paris climate accord". United Nations. 22 April 2016.
  6. 1 2 "Paris Agreement to enter into force as EU agrees ratification". European Commission. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  7. ↑ Doyle, Allister; Lewis, Barbara (12 December 2015). "World seals landmark climate accord, marking turn from fossil fuels". Reuters. Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  8. ↑ "Le 4 novembre, l'Accord de Paris entre en vigueur". French ministry of the environment. 3 November 2016.
  9. 1 2 "Paris Agreement, FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1" (PDF). UNFCCC secretariat. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  10. ↑ Vidal, John; Vaughan, Adam (13 December 2015). "Paris climate agreement 'may signal end of fossil fuel era'". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  11. ↑ "New Paris climate agreement ratifications reaffirm necessity to divest and break free from fossil fuels". 350.org. 21 September 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  12. ↑ "U.S. and China announce steps to join the Paris accord that set nation-by-nation targets for cutting carbon emissions". Cbs news. September 3, 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
  13. ↑ Article 3, Paris Agreement (2015)
  14. ↑ Article 4(9), Paris Agreement (2015)
  15. ↑ Articles 3, 9(3), Paris Agreement (2015)
  16. 1 2 Mark, Kinver (14 December 2015). "COP21: What does the Paris climate agreement mean for me?". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  17. ↑ Brunnee J, ‘International Legislation’, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2008)
  18. ↑ Reguly, Eric (14 December 2015). "Paris climate accord marks shift toward low-carbon economy". Globe and Mail. Toronto, Canada. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  19. ↑ Davenport, Coral (12 December 2015). "Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  20. ↑ "Paris climate deal: What the agreement means for India and the world". Hindustan Times. 14 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  21. ↑ "Climate negotiators strike deal to slow global warming". CBS News. CBS Interactive Inc. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  22. ↑ Druzin, Bryan (March 3, 2016). "A Plan to strengthen the Paris Agreement". Fordham Law Review.
  23. ↑ "Paris Agreement, Decision 1/CP.21, Article 17" (PDF). UNFCCC secretariat. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  24. ↑ Fountain, Henry. "Global Temperatures Are on Course for Another Record This Year". The New York Times (July 19, 2016). Retrieved 25 July 2016.
  25. ↑ "A sweeping global climate change agreement was ratified on Wednesday".
  26. 1 2 3 "The Paris Agreement "Ratchet Mechanism"". January 19, 2016.
  27. ↑ article 14 "Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). United Nations FCCC Int. United Nations. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  28. ↑ Birnie P, Boyle A and Redgwell C (2009). International Law and the Environment. Oxford: OUP. pp. Chapter 3.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Taraska, Gwynne (December 15, 2015). "The Paris Climate Agreement" (PDF). Center for American Progress.
  30. 1 2 Sinha, Amitabh (December 14, 2015). "Paris climate talks: Differentiation of developed and developing stays, India happy".
  31. 1 2 "Article 6 Implementation Paper" (PDF). International Emissions Trading Association. May 20, 2016.
  32. 1 2 Stavins, Robert (2016). "Market Mechanisms in the Paris Climate Agreement: International Linkage under Article 6.2" (PDF). Harvard Project on Climate Agreements.
  33. 1 2 Marcu, Andrei (2016). "Governance of Carbon Markets under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement" (PDF). Harvard Project on Climate Agreements.
  34. ↑ Hone, David (May 16, 2016). "A Vision for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement". The Energy Collective.
  35. ↑ United Nations/ Framework Convention on Climate Change (2015) Adoption of the Paris Agreement, 21st Conference of the Parties, Paris: United Nations
  36. ↑ "The Carbon Markets of Tomorrow: Taking Shape Today". Ecosystem Market Place. Retrieved 2016-10-24
  37. ↑ Motta, Gabriele (May 18, 2016) "Market Mechanisms: SDM is the new black!". CliM' Blog. Retrieved Oct 23, 2016
  38. ↑ Marcu, Andrei. "Carbon Market Provisions in the Paris Agreement (Article 6)." Center for European Policy Studies (2016): n. pag. Web. 9 Oct. 2016.
  39. ↑ Recommendations for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement." Carbon Market Watch. Carbon Market Watch, 19 May 2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
  40. ↑ Böhm, Steffen. Upsetting the offset: the political economy of carbon markets. London: MayFlyBooks, 2009., 2009
  41. 1 2 3 Mogelgaard, Kathleen (December 23, 2015). "What Does the Paris Agreement Mean for Climate Resilience and Adaptation". World Resources Institute.
  42. ↑ Morgan, Jennifer (December 12, 2015). "The Paris Agreement: Turning Point for a Climate Solution". World Resources Institute.
  43. ↑ Davenport, Coral (12 December 2015). "Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris". New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  44. ↑ "COP21 climate change summit reaches deal in Paris". BBC News. BBC News Services. 13 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  45. ↑ "Roadmap to US $100 Billion" (PDF). OECD.
  46. ↑ Suzanne Goldenberg. "Obama administration pays out $500m to climate change project | Environment". The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  47. ↑ Volcovici, Valerie (2016-03-07). "United States delivers first payment to global climate fund". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  48. 1 2 3 Mogelgaard, Kathleen (December 24, 2015). "When Adaptation is Not Enough". World Resources Institute.
  49. 1 2 "The Paris Agreement Summary" (PDF). Climate Focus. December 28, 2015.
  50. 1 2 3 4 "Putting the 'enhanced transparency framework' into action: Priorities for a key pillar of the Paris Agreement" (PDF). Stockholm Environment Institute.
  51. ↑ "UN climate talks extend Kyoto Protocol, promise compensation". BBC News. 8 December 2012.
  52. ↑ "UNFCCC:Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP)". Retrieved 2 August 2015.
  53. ↑ "Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). United Nations FCCC Int. United Nations. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  54. ↑ "'Historic' Paris climate deal adopted". CBC News. CBC/Radio Canada. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
  55. ↑ Article 20(1)
  56. 1 2 3 4 "Information provided in accordance with paragraph 104 of decision 1 CP21 related to entry into force of the Paris Agreement (Article 21)" (PDF). UNFCCC. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  57. ↑ Article 21(1)
  58. 1 2 "Historic Paris Agreement on Climate Change - 195 Nations Set Path to Keep Temperature Rise Well Below 2 Degrees Celsius". UN Climate Change Newsroom. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  59. ↑ McGrath, Matt (2016-03-31). "Paris Climate Treaty: 'Significant step' as US and China agree to sign". Bbc.com. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  60. ↑ Obama and President Xi of China Vow to Sign Paris Climate Agreement Promptly April 1, 2016
  61. ↑ "PARIS AGREEMENT Signature Ceremony" (PDF). UNFCCC. 22 April 2016.
  62. ↑ Yeo, Sophie (23 June 2016). "Explainer: When will the European Union ratify the Paris Agreement?". Retrieved 3 September 2016.
  63. 1 2 "Paris climate deal to take effect as EU ratifies accord". Nature. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  64. 1 2 3 "Paris climate deal: US and China formally join pact", BBC News, 3 September 2016 (page visited on 4 September 2016).
  65. ↑ "India Ratifies Landmark Paris Climate Deal, Says, 'Kept Our Promise'". Retrieved 2016-10-02.
  66. ↑ "Chile firmará acuerdo climático en septiembre y será uno de los 57 países que lo ratificarían este año".
  67. ↑ China has declared that the agreement shall extend to Hong Kong and Macao.
  68. ↑ Excluding Greenland:
  69. ↑ Excluding Tokelau:
  70. ↑ "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". United Nations Treaty Series. 2013-07-23. Retrieved 2013-07-24.
  71. ↑ "Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO2 equivalent)". World Bank. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  72. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (3 November 2016). "World on track for 3 °C of warming under current global climate pledges, warns UN". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  73. ↑ John Vidal (13 December 2015). "Paris Climate Agreement 'May Signal End of Fossil Fuel Era'". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
  74. ↑ Rogelj, Joeri; et al. (2016). "Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2C". Nature. 534 (7609): 631–639. doi:10.1038/nature18307.
  75. ↑ Mooney, Chris (29 June 2016). "The world has the right climate goals — but the wrong ambition levels to achieve them". Washington Post. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
  76. ↑ Milman, Oliver (12 December 2015). "James Hansen, father of climate change awareness, calls Paris talks 'a fraud'". The Guardian. London, England. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
  77. ↑ M. Nicolas J. Firzli (25 January 2016). "Investment Governance: The Real Fight against Emissions is Being Waged by Markets". Dow Jones Financial News.

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