Hindu wedding

A Hindu bride during her wedding.

A Hindu wedding is Vivaha (Sanskrit: विवाह[1]) and the wedding ceremony is called vivaah sanskar in North India and kalyanam (generally) in South India.[2][3] Hindus attach a great deal of importance to marriages. The ceremonies are very colourful, and celebrations may extend for several days. The bride's and groom's home - entrance, doors, wall, floor, roof - are sometimes decorated with colors, balloons,and other decorations.[4]

The rituals and process in a Hindu wedding vary widely. Nevertheless, there are a few key rituals common in Hindu weddings - Kanyadaan, Panigrahana, and Saptapadi, which are respectively, giving away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify union, and taking seven steps with each step includes a promise to each other before fire.[5] The Hindu wedding ceremony at its core is essentially a Vedic yajna ritual. The primary witness of a Hindu marriage is the fire-deity (or the Sacred Fire) Agni, in the presence of family and friends.[6] The ceremony is traditionally conducted entirely, or at least partially in Sanskrit, considered by Hindus as the language of holy ceremonies. The local language of the bride and groom is also used. These rituals are prescribed in the Gruhya sutra composed by various rishis such as Baudhayana and Ashvalayana.

The pre-wedding and post-wedding rituals and celebrations vary by region, preferences or the resources of the groom, bride and their families. They can range from one day to multi-day events. Pre-wedding ceremonies include engagement (involving vagdana or betrothal and lagna-patra written declaration),[3] and arrival of the groom's party at the bride's residence, often in the form of a formal procession with dancing and music. The post-wedding ceremonies may include Abhishek, Anna Prashashan, Aashirvadah, and Grihapravesa – the welcoming of the bride to her new home. The wedding marks the start of Grihastha (householder) stage of life for the new couple.

In India, by law and tradition, no Hindu marriage is binding and complete unless the ritual of seven steps and vows in presence of fire (Saptapadi) is completed by the bride and the groom together.[7] This requirement is under debate.[8]

A Hindu wedding is regionally called Thirumanam or kalyaanam(Tamil:திருமணம்-கல்யாணம்), Vivaham or kalyaanam(Malayalam:വിവാഹം - കല്യാണം), vivaha (Hindi: विवाह), (Bengali : বিবাহ), (Kannada: ಮದುವೆ (Maduve)), (Telugu: పెళ్లి (pelli), మనువు (manuvu).

Eight types of marriage

A Hindu Marriage Ceremony

Ancient Hindu literature, such as Asvalayana Grhyasutra and Atharvaveda, identify eight forms of marriages.[3] These are:[5][9]

The above four types of marriages were considered prashasta marriages (proper, religiously appropriate under Hinduism), since they contains vows from Vedic scriptures, where both bride and groom commit to each other and share responsibilities to their families. The other four were considered aprashasta (inappropriate), since they do not follow any Vedic rituals and vows.[3][5] Among inappropriate weddings, two acceptable forms of marriages were:

The last two marriages were not only inappropriate, but religiously forbidden (the children, if any, from these forbidden types of consummation were considered legitimate, nevertheless):

James Lochtefeld finds that the last two forms of marriage were forbidden yet recognized in ancient Hindu societies, not to encourage these acts, but to provide the woman and any children with legal protection in the society.[5]

Main rituals

Main article: Vivaah

There is no single standard Hindu marriage ceremony.[5] Regional variations and considerable flexibility in the rituals are prevalent. The variations may be based on family traditions, local traditions, resources of the marrying families, and other factors. Some of the key rituals are performed in slightly different ways in different regions.

There are a few key rituals common in a Hindu wedding ceremony. These are[5][10][11]

Kanyadaan

Kanyadaan – a key ritual where the father gifts away the daughter to the groom. In this picture, the father's hand is on the left, the bride and groom are on the right.

The Kanyadaan ceremony is performed by the father.[13] If the father has died, a guardian of bride's choosing performs this ritual. The father brings the daughter, then takes the bride's hand and places it to the groom's. This marks the beginning of the ceremony of giving away the bride. The groom accepts the bride's hand, while the kama-sukta (hymn to love) is pronounced, in the presence of the father, the bride and the groom. The Kamasukta verse is:[13]

Who offered this maiden?, to whom is she offered?
Kama (the god of love) gave her to me, that I may love her
Love is the giver, love is the acceptor
Enter thou, the bride, the ocean of love

With love then, I receive thee
May she remain thine, thine own, O god of love
Verily, thou art, prosperity itself
May the heaven bestow thee, may the earth receive thee

After this ritual recital, the father asks the groom to not fail the girl in his pursuit of dharma (moral and lawful life), artha (wealth) and kama (love). The groom promises to the bride's father that he shall never fail her in his pursuit of dharma, artha and kama.[14] The groom repeats the promise three times.

The groom's promises to bride's father marks the end of the kanyadaan ritual in Hindu wedding.

Panigrahana

A yajna during a Hindu wedding

The ritual of Panigrahana comes after Kanyadana. Sometimes, this ritual is preceded by vivaha-homa rite, wherein a symbolic fire is lit by the groom to mark the start of a new household.[13][15]

Panigrahana is the 'holding the hand' ritual[5] as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom. The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her hand while the following Rg vedic mantra is recited:[3][13]

I take thy hand in mine, yearning for happiness
I ask thee, to live with me, as thy husband
Till both of us, with age, grow old

Know this, as I declare, that the Gods
Bhaga, Aryama, Savita and Purandhi, have bestowed thy person, upon me
that I may fulfill, my Dharmas of the householder, with thee

This I am, That art thou
The Sāman I, the Ŗc thou
The Heavens I, the Earth thou

In Gujarati Wedding this step is called "Hast-Milap" (literally, meeting of hands). The whole ceremony was timed around an auspicious time ("Mauhurat") for this step and few decades ago, the wedding invitation would even list the time when this event was going to take place.

Saptapadi – Short Form

Main article: Saptapadi
A Hindu couple in post-marriage ceremonies, after Saptapadi. The tied clothing, represents lifelong bond formed during the seven promises ritual with fire as witness.

The Saptapadi (Sanskrit for seven steps/feet), is the most important ritual of Vedic Hindu weddings, and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage.[2] Sometimes called Saat Phere (seven rounds),[16] couple conduct seven circuits of the Holy Fire (Agni), which is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other.[17] In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied together for this ceremony. Elsewhere, the groom holds the bride's right hand in his own right hand.[17] Each circuit of the consecrated fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. In North India, the first six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom.[18] In Central India and Suriname, the bride leads the first three or four circuits.[17] With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other.

In some South Indian weddings, after each saying a mantra at each of the seven steps, the couple say these words together:

"Now let us make a vow together. We shall share love, share the same food, share our strengths, share the same tastes. We shall be of one mind, we shall observe the vows together. I shall be the Samaveda, you the Rigveda, I shall be the Upper World, you the Earth; I shall be the Sukhilam, you the Holder – together we shall live and beget children, and other riches; come thou, O beautiful girl!"[19][20][21][22][23]
Hindu wedding, ceremonial offerings

In North Indian weddings, the bride and the groom say the following words after completing the seven steps:

"We have taken the Seven Steps. You have become mine forever. Yes, we have become partners. I have become yours. Hereafter, I cannot live without you. Do not live without me. Let us share the joys. We are word and meaning, united. You are thought and I am sound. May the night be honey-sweet for us. May the morning be honey-sweet for us. May the earth be honey-sweet for us. May the heavens be honey-sweet for us. May the plants be honey-sweet for us. May the sun be all honey for us. May the cows yield us honey-sweet milk. As the heavens are stable, as the earth is stable, as the mountains are stable, as the whole universe is stable, so may our union be permanently settled."[24][25][26][27]

Saptapadi – Long Form

The long form of the key Hindu wedding ritual, Saptapadi, starts with preface announced by the priest, and thereafter followed by a series of vows the groom and bride make to each other.[28] They are as follows:

Priest's preface: The world of men and women, united in the bond of marriage by Saptapadi, to further promote the joy of life, together listen with triumph

Step 1 Groom's vow: O!, you who feeds life-sustaining food, nourish my visitors, friends, parents and offsprings with food and drinks. O! beautiful lady, I, as a form of Vishnu, take this first step with you for food.
 Step 1 Bride's vow: Yes, whatever food you earn with hard work, I will safeguard it, prepare it to nourish you. I promise to respect your wishes, and nourish your friends and family as well.

Step 2 Groom's vow: O!, thoughtful and beautiful lady, with a well managed home, with purity of behavior and thought, you will enable us to be strong, energetic and happy. O! beautiful lady, I, as Vishnu, take this second step with you for the strength of body, character and being.
 Step 2 Bride's vow: Yes, I will manage the home according to my ability and reason. Together, I promise, to keep a home that is healthy, strength and energy giving.

Step 3 Groom's vow: O!, skillful and beautiful lady, I promise to devote myself to earning a livelihood by fair means, to discuss, and let you manage and preserve our wealth. O! dear lady, I, as Vishnu form, cover this third step with you to thus prosper in our wealth.
 Step 3 Bride's vow: Yes, I join you in managing our income and expenses. I promise to seek your consent, as I manage our wealth, fairly earned, so it grows and sustains our family.

Step 4 Groom's vow: O!, dear lady, I promise to trust your decisions about the household and your choices; I promise to dedicate myself to help our community prosper, the matters outside the house. This shall bring us respect. O! my lady, I, as Vishnu, take this fourth step with you to participate in our world.
 Step 4 Bride's vow: Yes, I promise to strive to make the best home for us, anticipate and provide necessary things for your worldly life, and for the happiness of our family.

Step 5 Groom's vow: O!, lady of skill and pure thoughts, I promise to consult with you and engage you in the keep of our cows, our agriculture and our source of income; I promise to contribute to our country. It shall win us future. O! my skilled lady, I, as Vishnu form, take this fifth step with you to together grow our farms and cattle.
 Step 5 Bride's vow: Yes, I promise to participate and protect the cattle, our agriculture and business. They are a source of yoghurt, milk, ghee and income, all useful for our family, necessary for our happiness.

Step 6 Groom's vow: O!, lovely lady, I seek you and only you, to love, to have children, to raise a family, to experience all the seasons of life. O! my lovely lady, I, as Vishnu, take this sixth step with you to experience every season of life.
 Step 6 Bride's vow: Feeling one with you, with your consent, I will be the means of your enjoyment of all the senses. Through life's seasons, I will cherish you in my heart. I will worship you and seek to complete you.

Step 7 Groom's vow: O friends!, allow us to cover the seventh step together, this promise, our Saptapad-friendship. Please be my constant wife.
 Step 7 Bride's vow: Yes, today, I gained you, I secured the highest kind of friendship with you. I will remember the vows we just took and adore you forever sincerely with all my heart.

After the seventh step, the two become husband and wife.

Additional rituals

Hindu wedding – the bride and groom are traditionally dressed
Some Indian weddings abroad symbolically maintain some of the customs in India. Above is a symbolic arrival of the groom on a horse (baraat), in Nottingham, England. In front is the band.

Many Hindu weddings start with the Milne (meeting) and Swagatam (welcome) ceremony. This ritual is where the Baraat (groom's procession party) arrives at the bride's home or the location where the bride is and marriage will be celebrated. The Baraat typically includes dancing and joyous members of groom's family, relatives and friends. On their arrival, there is a ritual where key persons from the groom's side and bride's side are introduced to each other. The introduction is typically followed by Jai mala (garland exchange between bride and groom) and a reception that serves food and drinks.[29][30]

Many other rituals and ceremonies are sometimes found in Hindu weddings, such as madhuparka, vivaha-homa, agni-parinayana, asmarohana, laja homa, abhishek, anna-prashashan, and aashir-vadah.[3][14] All these ceremonies are done at the wedding location, typically at or near the bride's home.[4] These additional rituals include the participation of the brothers, or sisters, or maternal/paternal relatives, guardians or friends of the bride.

In some parts of India, such as Gujarat and northern India, a laja homa ritual called mangal pherā is performed where the couple make four circles around holy fire. It follows hasta milap (meeting of hands of the couple), but precedes Saptpadi. The first three circles is led by the groom, and it represents three of four goals of life considered important in Hindu life – Dharma, Artha, Kama. The fourth circle is led by bride and it represents the fourth goal of life – Moksha.[31] After Saptapadi, as hymns are being recited, the groom performs māņg sindoor ritual where a saffron or red color powder is marked into the parting of the wife's hair.[14] Instead of circling the fire and other steps, the rituals and ceremonies may be performed symbolically, such as stepping on small heaps of rice or throwing grains into the fire.[14][32]

Some rituals involve[14] rice or other grains, seeds and pastes. In these ceremonies, rice is thrown at the bride, groom or they kick a container containing the grain. Rituals include darshan, where the newly married couple are met, blessed and greeted by family and friends of the bride and groom.[32]

After the wedding is complete, the bride leaves for groom's home, where Hindu family members of the groom welcome the newly wedded couple in a ritual known as Grihapravesa (home coming/entry).[13] This ceremony typically requires participation of the mother, father, brothers, and sisters, or other guardians of the groom.

Ancient literature[33] suggests the Hindu couple spent time with each other, but delayed the consummation for at least three nights following the wedding. This rite, known as chaturthikarma – literally, "the rite performed on the fourth day of marriage" – has been claimed by some scholars. Chaturthikarma is followed by most of South Indian communities.[34] as a possible basis for the validity of a marriage. Other scholars[35] suggest Saptapadi and regionally customary wedding rituals, not consummation, defines legal validity of a Hindu marriage. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, Article 7, is consistent with the latter.[7] Chaturthikarma is not a common practice in Hindu communities.[36]

In modern Hindu families, the couple proceed to honeymoon after Grihapravesa.

Rituals in Nepal

The bride is ceremoniously decorated, in Hindu weddings, by her friends and family in regional dress, jewelry, and body art called Mehndi. The body art is produced from a mixture of henna and turmeric. Above a Nepali bride.

In the Hindu culture of Nepal, marriage rituals are done by the Chhetri in a sixteen step process that centers on the household. The household is important during the marriage ritual because it is the center of the concept of mandala; the Chhetri's homes are considered to be domestic mandalas and so have roles as householders. The act of marriage brings men and women into the householder role. Marriage is the most important rite of passage for the Chhetris and is one of the most serious. Women move from their houses to the home of the groom after marriage. The ceremony is done in a precise and careful manner as to not bring bad luck to the families of the bride and groom; certain traditions, for example no one seeing the face of the bride until the end, are followed in order to ensure future prosperity. Prior to the marriage ceremony, there is no kinship between families of the bride and groom and the bride must be a virgin. The marriage ceremony consists of a series of rites that are performed over a two-day period between the houses of the bride and the groom. Within each home the enclosed area in the courtyard (jagya) and the kitchen are used the most; the jagya and the kitchen are considered the most important parts of the domestic mandala structure because it is where rice (an important part of the Chhetri's culture) is prepared and consumed. At the end of the ceremony is the establishment of the role of the wife and husband in the husband's home.[37]

The first step in the marriage ceremony is called Purbanga. In the kitchen of their homes, the bride and the groom worship the seven Mother Goddesses as so to pay respect to their ancestors and ask for peace. In the second, third, and fourth step, the groom is then blessed by his mother and is taken outside to his jagya where his father and procession (janti) carry him and bring gifts for the bride to her house in a ceremony called dulähä anmäune. In the fifth step as the groom waits before the house of the bride, gifts of clothes and food are placed around the jagya; the father of the bride then places red paste on the groom's forehead indicating that he is no longer an outsider to his family. The sixth step is the performance of the Barani or welcoming for the groom and his janti as they enter the jagya. The father purifies the body of the groom using panchämrit (nectar from five pure liquids). A small feast is then held for the groom as the next steps in the marriage continue.[37]

After the small feast, the marriage process for the bride begins. The seventh step takes place in the kitchen of the bride where the process of kanya dan starts; the bride's parents give their daughter in marriage to her groom thereby allowing the bride to be a part of the groom's lineage and making the father's lineage secondary. After they wash their feet they dress in red and, in the eighth step, sit beside in each other in the jagya. They perform post-marriage rites as they make sacrificial offerings to the fire in the center of the jagya. During these rites the bride and groom perform tasks such as placing red powder in the hair of the bride and the bride eats leftover food of the groom and at the end the now husband gives his wife a personal name for which she is to be called by.[37]

After the post-marriage ceremony, the married couple being to leave the bride's home. In the ninth step, the husband and wife return to the kitchen of the wife and worship their ancestors and the seven Mother Goddesses. In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth step, the couple leave the wife's house as she is given a garland from her parents; the wife and husband enter the jagya and are then escorted out riding on palanquins as they return to their permanent home of the husband. The thirteenth step beings once they enter the jagya of the groom and his virgin sisters welcome the wife in a ceremony called arti syäl. They unveil the bride and adorn her with flower garlands and sprinkle puffed rice on her (a sign of prosperity). The fourteenth step is completed once the bride promises gifts to the sisters; she then moves on the fifteenth step where she steps on piles of rice in a path toward the kitchen. The final step is a series of rites, the first of which is the bride worshiping the ancestors and deities of the husband; she then demonstrates her skills in handling rice to the husband's mother and sisters and then they entwine her hair. Finally, the mother unveils the bride again in front of the husband and in a ceremony called khutta dhog, the bride places the foot of the mother on her forehead thereby ending the marriage ceremony.[37]

Wedding and Married Life in Hinduism

While there are many rituals in Hinduism, such as those at birth and passing away of loved ones, the Hindu wedding is the most important and extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.[3] Typical Hindu families spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate weddings.

Economics

In 2008, Indian weddings market was estimated to be $31 billion a year.[4] Various sources estimate India celebrates about 10 million weddings per year,[38][39] and over 80% of these are Hindu weddings. The average expenditures exceed US$3,000 per wedding. Another $30 billion per year is spent on jewelry in India,[40] with jewelry for weddings being the predominant market. In a nation with per capita annual income of $1,500,[41] weddings are a major financial commitment for the typical Hindu family.

Law

In India, where most Hindus live, the laws relating to marriage differ by religion. According to the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, passed by the Parliament of India, for all legal purposes, all Hindus of any caste, creed or sect, Sikh, Buddhists and Jains are deemed Hindus and can intermarry. By the Special Marriage Act, 1954, a Hindu can marry a person who is not Hindu, employing any ceremony, provided specified legal conditions are fulfilled. By Section 7 of Hindu Marriage Act, and tradition, no Hindu marriage is binding and complete before the seventh step of the Saptapadi ritual in presence of fire, by the bride and the groom together.[8] In some cases, such as South Indian Hindu marriages, this is not required.

Married life

A Vedic sage emphasized that the basis of happy and fulfilling married life is the sense of unity, intimacy and love between husband and wife both physically, mentally and spiritually. Hence wife is considered to be the Ardhangani of husband as per Hindu tradition. Marriage is not for self-indulgence, but is considered a lifelong social and spiritual responsibility. Married life is considered an opportunity for two people to grow as life partners into soul mates.[42][43][44]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Vivaha Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany
  2. 1 2 BBC News article on Hinduism & Weddings, Nawal Prinja (August 24, 2009)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 153-233
  4. 1 2 3 Sari nights and henna parties, Amy Yee, The Financial Times, May 17, 2008
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), ISBN 978-0823931798, page 427
  6. 1 2 Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India - From Ancient to Modern Times, Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8; see pages 4, 73-74
  7. 1 2 The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 - See Section 7.2 Government of India
  8. 1 2 Modern Indian Family Law, Werner Menski (2001), Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713165; see page 26
  9. 1 2 Eight forms of Hindu Marriage and its custom, India Tribune (September 2011)
  10. ↑ History of Dharmasastra, Vaman Kane (1962)
  11. ↑ Reshmi Roy (2004), Saptapadi - The Seven Steps, University of Canterbury, Ph.D. Thesis
  12. ↑ A Sharma (1985), Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition, Journal Of Ecumenical Studies, 22(1), 69–80.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 P.H. Prabhu (2011), Hindu Social Organization, ISBN 978-8171542062, see pages 164–165
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Kane, PV (1974). History of Dharmasastra: Ancient and Medieval Civil Law in India (Vol 2.1). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. pp. 531–538.
  15. ↑ Monier Monier Williams (1893), Indian wisdom; or, Examples of the religious, philosophical, and ethical doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co. (London)
  16. ↑ Office of the Registrar General, Government of India (1962), v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2, Manager of Publications, Government of India, On Hindu wedding rituals
  17. 1 2 3 Shivendra Kumar Sinha (2008), Basics of Hinduism, Unicorn Books, ISBN 81-7806-155-4, The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni ... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire ...
  18. ↑ Office of the Registrar General, Government of India (1962), Census of India, 1961, v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2, Manager of Publications, Government of India, The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh
  19. ↑ www.panchangam.com
  20. ↑ South Indian Wedding, SanathanaDharma.com, retrieved 2009-05-21, ... The Ritual of the Hindu Wedding too is each symbolic ...
  21. ↑ Sapthapathi Manthras – Its meaning, bnaiyer.com, retrieved 2009-05-21, ... they both say: "Now let us make a vow together. We shall share the same food, share the strengths ...
  22. ↑ www.sophieanand.com
  23. ↑ A South Indian Wedding – The Rituals and the Rationale: The Vedic Ceremony of the Tamil Shaivite Brahmin community, SAWNET, retrieved 2009-05-21, ... The gates of the wedding hall are adorned with full-grown plantain trees, signifying evergreen plenty for endless generations ...
  24. ↑ Diane Warner (2006), Diane Warner's Complete Book of Wedding Vows: Hundreds of Ways to Say "I Do", Career Press, ISBN 1-56414-816-5, ... We have taken the Seven Steps. You have become mine ...
  25. ↑ Sitaram Sehgal (1969), Hindu marriage and its immortal traditions, Navyug Publications, ... May the plants be honey-sweet for us; may the Sun be all honey for us and ...
  26. ↑ Eleanor C. Munro (1996), Wedding readings: centuries of writing and rituals on love and marriage, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-008879-2, ... May the nights be honey-sweet for us; may the mornings be honey-sweet ...
  27. ↑ Michael Macfarlane (1999), Wedding Vows: Finding the Perfect Words, Sterling Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8069-0639-1, ... we are word and meaning, united ...
  28. ↑ Sri Saptapadi Hridayam, Amrit Vagbhava Acharya, Raj Misra, Bharatpur India, (1939)
  29. ↑ The Marriage Parties, The Hindu Business Line, July 3 2009
  30. ↑ A.G. Srinavasan (2012), Hindu Wedding, ISBN 9781622098132
  31. ↑ Srinivasan, AV (2009). The Vedic Wedding: Origins, Tradition, and Practice : Including a Step-by-step Wedding Ceremony in Sanskrit with English. Periplus. pp. 64, 132–152. ISBN 9780978544300.
  32. 1 2 Pauwels, Heidi (2004). Only You: The Wedding of Rama and Sita - Past and Present, in The Ramayana Revisited (Editor: Mandakranta Bose). Oxford University Press. pp. 165–189. ISBN 978-0195168327.
  33. ↑ Singh, M. M. (1967). Life in North-Eastern India in Pre-Mauryan Times: With Special Reference to 600 BC-325 BC, Motilal Banarsidas Publisher; pages 48–49
  34. ↑ Arvind Sharma, "Marriage in the Hindu Religious Tradition," Journal of Ecumenical Studies 22 no 1 (1985): 69–80.
  35. ↑ Banerjee, G. (1879), The Hindu Law of Marriage and Stridhan. Thacker, Spink, and Company; See pages 108–110
  36. ↑ Jha, J. C. (1976). The Hindu Sacraments (Rites de Passage) in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Quarterly, 40-52
  37. 1 2 3 4 Gray, John (January 1, 2009). "Marriage ritual in Nepal: space, performance in tacit knowledge". Journal of Ritual Studies. 23 (1): 45–60.
  38. ↑ India's love affair with gold, CBS News, February 12, 2012
  39. ↑ India, the Rupee, Import Duties, Gold and Diamonds Kitco Metals Inc. (New York), July 23, 2013
  40. ↑ Gems and jewelry industry in India IBEF - A Trust established by the Government of India (May 2013)
  41. ↑ India - Country Report 13/37, IMF Washington DC (February 2013)
  42. ↑ Marriage is a Sacred Bond and Pledge http://www.akhandjyoti.org/?Akhand-Jyoti/2003/Mar-Apr/MarriageSacredBond/
  43. ↑ Official Website of All World Gayatri Pariwar http://www.awgp.org/
  44. ↑ Magazine of All World Gayatri Pariwar http://www.akhandjyoti.org/

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