Trans-Neptunian object

Euler diagram showing the types of bodies in the Solar System.

A trans-Neptunian object (TNO, also written transneptunian object) is any minor planet in the Solar System that orbits the Sun at a greater average distance (semi-major axis) than Neptune, 30 astronomical units (AU). Twelve minor planets[nb 1] with a semi-major axis greater than 150 AU and perihelion greater than 30 AU are known, which are called extreme trans-Neptunian objects (ETNOs).[1]

The first trans-Neptunian object to be discovered was Pluto in 1930. It took until 1992 to discover a second trans-Neptunian object orbiting the Sun directly, (15760) 1992 QB1. As of January 2016 over 1,750 trans-Neptunian objects appear on the Minor Planet Center's List of Transneptunian Objects.[2][3] Of these TNOs, 1,563 have a perihelion farther out than Neptune (30.1 AU).[4] As of November 2016, 242 of these have their orbits well-enough determined that they have been given a permanent minor planet designation.[2][5]

The largest known trans-Neptunian object is Pluto, followed by Eris, 2007 OR10, Makemake and Haumea. The Kuiper belt, scattered disk, and Oort cloud are three conventional divisions of this volume of space,[6] though treatments vary and a few objects such as Sedna do not fit easily into any division.[nb 2]

History

Discovery of Pluto

The orbit of each of the planets is slightly affected by the gravitational influences of the other planets. Discrepancies in the early 1900s between the observed and expected orbits of Uranus and Neptune suggested that there were one or more additional planets beyond Neptune. The search for these led to the discovery of Pluto in February 1930, which was too small to explain the discrepancies. Revised estimates of Neptune's mass from the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989 showed that the problem was spurious.[8]

Pluto was easiest to find because it has the highest apparent magnitude of all known trans-Neptunian objects. It also has a lower inclination to the ecliptic than most other large TNOs.

Discovery of other trans-Neptunian objects

After Pluto's discovery, American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh continued searching for some years for similar objects, but found none. For a long time, no one searched for other TNOs as it was generally believed that Pluto, which up to August 2006 was classified a planet, was the only major object beyond Neptune. Only after the 1992 discovery of a second TNO, (15760) 1992 QB1, did systematic searches for further such objects begin. A broad strip of the sky around the ecliptic was photographed and digitally evaluated for slowly moving objects. Hundreds of TNOs were found, with diameters in the range of 50 to 2,500 kilometers.

Eris, at the time thought to be the largest TNO, was discovered in 2005, revisiting a long-running dispute within the scientific community over the classification of large TNOs, and whether objects like Pluto can be considered planets. Pluto and Eris were eventually classified as dwarf planets by the International Astronomical Union.

Distribution and classification

Distribution of trans-Neptunian objects

According to their distance from the Sun and their orbit parameters, TNOs are classified in two large groups:

Kuiper belt objects (KBOs)

Scattered disc objects (SDOs)

The diagram to the right illustrates the distribution of known trans-Neptunian objects (up to 70 AU) in relation to the orbits of the planets and the centaurs for reference. Different classes are represented in different colours. Resonant objects (including Neptune trojans) are plotted in red, cubewanos in blue. The scattered disc extends to the right, far beyond the diagram, with known objects at mean distances beyond 500 AU (Sedna) and aphelia beyond 1000 AU ((87269) 2000 OO67).

Notable trans-Neptunian objects

Earth Moon Dysnomia Dysnomia Eris Eris Charon Charon Nix Nix Kerberos Kerberos Styx Styx Hydra Pluto Pluto Makemake Makemake Namaka Namaka Hi'iaka Hi'iaka Haumea Haumea Sedna Sedna 2007 OR10 2007 OR10 Weywot Weywot Quaoar Quaoar Vanth Vanth Orcus Orcus
Artistic comparison of Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna, 2007 OR10, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth along with the Moon.

Putative trans-Neptunian objects of planetary size

The existence of trans-Neptunian rock–ice bodies of planetary size, ranging from less than an Earth mass up to a brown dwarf has been often postulated[20][21] for different theoretical reasons to explain several observed or speculated features of the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud. It was recently proposed to use ranging data from the New Horizons spacecraft to constrain the position of such a hypothesized body.[22]

Physical characteristics

Given the apparent magnitude (>20) of all but the biggest trans-Neptunian objects, the physical studies are limited to the following:

Studying colours and spectra provides insight into the objects' origin and a potential correlation with other classes of objects, namely centaurs and some satellites of giant planets (Triton, Phoebe), suspected to originate in the Kuiper belt. However, the interpretations are typically ambiguous as the spectra can fit more than one model of the surface composition and depend on the unknown particle size. More significantly, the optical surfaces of small bodies are subject to modification by intense radiation, solar wind and micrometeorites. Consequently, the thin optical surface layer could be quite different from the regolith underneath, and not representative of the bulk composition of the body.

Small TNOs are thought to be low-density mixtures of rock and ice with some organic (carbon-containing) surface material such as tholin, detected in their spectra. On the other hand, the high density of Haumea, 2.6–3.3 g/cm3, suggests a very high non-ice content (compare with Pluto's density: 2.0 g/cm3).

The composition of some small TNOs could be similar to that of comets. Indeed, some centaurs undergo seasonal changes when they approach the Sun, making the boundary blurred (see 2060 Chiron and 133P/Elst–Pizarro). However, population comparisons between centaurs and TNOs are still controversial.[23]

Colours

Colours of trans-Neptunian objects. Mars and Triton are not to scale. Phoebe and Pholus are not trans-Neptunian.

Like among centaurs, among TNOs there is a wide range of colours from blue-grey (neutral) to very red, but unlike the centaurs, clearly regrouped into two classes, the distribution appears to be uniform.[23]

Colour indices are simple measures of the differences in the apparent magnitude of an object seen through blue (B), visible (V), i.e. green-yellow, and red (R) filters. The diagram illustrates known colour indices for all but the biggest objects (in slightly enhanced colour).[24] For reference, two moons: Triton and Phoebe, the centaur Pholus and the planet Mars are plotted (yellow labels, size not to scale).

Correlations between the colours and the orbital characteristics have been studied, to confirm theories of different origin of the different dynamic classes.

Classical objects

Classical objects seem to be composed of two different colour populations: the so-called cold (inclination <5°) population, displaying only red colours, and the so-called hot (higher inclination) population displaying the whole range of colours from blue to very red.[25]

A recent analysis based on the data from Deep Ecliptic Survey confirms this difference in colour between low-inclination (named Core) and high-inclination (named Halo) objects. Red colours of the Core objects together with their unperturbed orbits suggest that these objects could be a relic of the original population of the belt.[26]

Scattered disk objects

Scattered disk objects show colour resemblances with hot classical objects pointing to a common origin.

The largest objects

Size comparison between the Moon, Neptune's moon Triton, and several large TNOs
Illustration of the relative sizes, albedos and colours of some large TNOs

Characteristically, big (bright) objects are typically on inclined orbits, whereas the invariable plane regroups mostly small and dim objects. Although the relatively dimmer bodies, as well as the population as the whole, are reddish (V−I = 0.3–0.6), the bigger objects are often more neutral in colour (infrared index V−I < 0.2). This distinction leads to suggestion that the surface of the largest bodies is covered with ices, hiding the redder, darker areas underneath.[16]

The third diagram on the right illustrates the relative sizes, albedos and colours of the biggest TNOs.

Spectra

The objects present wide range of spectra, differing in reflectivity in visible red and near infrared. Neutral objects present a flat spectrum, reflecting as much red and infrared as visible spectrum.[27] Very red objects present a steep slope, reflecting much more in red and infrared. A recent attempt at classification (common with centaurs) uses the total of four classes from BB (blue, average B−V=0.70, V−R=0.39, e.g. Orcus) to RR (very red, B−V=1.08, V−R=0.71, e.g. Sedna) with BR and IR as intermediate classes. BR and IR differ mostly in the infrared bands I, J and H.

Typical models of the surface include water ice, amorphous carbon, silicates and organic macromolecules, named tholins, created by intense radiation. Four major tholins are used to fit the reddening slope:

As an illustration of the two extreme classes BB and RR, the following compositions have been suggested

Size determination

It is difficult to estimate the diameter of TNOs. For very large objects, with very well known orbital elements (like Pluto), diameters can be precisely measured by occultation of stars.

For other large TNOs, diameters can be estimated by thermal measurements. The intensity of light illuminating the object is known (from its distance to the Sun), and one assumes that most of its surface is in thermal equilibrium (usually not a bad assumption for an airless body). For a known albedo, it is possible to estimate the surface temperature, and correspondingly the intensity of heat radiation. Further, if the size of the object is known, it is possible to predict both the amount of visible light and emitted heat radiation reaching Earth. A simplifying factor is that the Sun emits almost all of its energy in visible light and at nearby frequencies, while at the cold temperatures of TNOs, the heat radiation is emitted at completely different wavelengths (the far infrared).

Thus there are two unknowns (albedo and size), which can be determined by two independent measurements (of the amount of reflected light and emitted infrared heat radiation).

Unfortunately, TNOs are so far from the Sun that they are very cold, hence produce black-body radiation around 60 micrometres in wavelength. This wavelength of light is impossible to observe on the Earth's surface, but only from space using, e.g. the Spitzer Space Telescope. For ground-based observations, astronomers observe the tail of the black-body radiation in the far infrared. This far infrared radiation is so dim that the thermal method is only applicable to the largest KBOs. For the majority of (small) objects, the diameter is estimated by assuming an albedo. However, the albedos found range from 0.50 down to 0.05, resulting in a size range of 1200–3700 km for an object of magnitude of 1.0.[28]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 2003 SS422 is excluded from the count because it has an observation arc of only 76 days and hence its semi-major axis is not securely known.
  2. 1 2 The literature is inconsistent in the use of the phrases "scattered disc" and "Kuiper belt". For some, they are distinct populations; for others, the scattered disk is part of the Kuiper belt, in which case the low-eccentricity population is called the "classical Kuiper belt". Authors may even switch between these two uses in a single publication.[7] In this article, the scattered disk will be considered a separate population from the Kuiper belt.

References

  1. ↑ C. de la Fuente Marcos; R. de la Fuente Marcos (September 1, 2014). "Extreme trans-Neptunian objects and the Kozai mechanism: signalling the presence of trans-Plutonian planets". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 443 (1): L59–L63. arXiv:1406.0715Freely accessible. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.443L..59D. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slu084.
  2. 1 2 IAU Minor Planet Center List Of Transneptunian Objects
  3. ↑ "JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: orbital class (TNO)". JPL Solar System Dynamics. Retrieved 2014-07-10.
  4. ↑ "JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: orbital class (TNO) and q > 30.1 (AU)". Retrieved 2014-07-11.
  5. ↑ "List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects". minorplanetcenter.org.
  6. ↑ Remo, John L. (2007). "Classifying Solid Planetary Bodies". AIP Conference Proceedings. 886: 284–302. Bibcode:2007AIPC..886..284R. doi:10.1063/1.2710063.
  7. ↑ McFadden, Weissman, & Johnson (2007). Encyclopedia of the Solar System, footnote p. 584
  8. ↑ Chris Gebhardt; Jeff Goldader (August 20, 2011). "Thirty-four years after launch, Voyager 2 continues to explore". NASASpaceflight.
  9. 1 2 Elliot, J. L.; Kern, S. D.; Clancy, K. B.; Gulbis, A. A. S.; Millis, R. L.; Buie, M. W.; Wasserman, L. H.; Chiang, E. I.; Jordan, A. B.; Trilling, D. E.; Meech, K. J. (2005). "The Deep Ecliptic Survey: A Search for Kuiper Belt Objects and Centaurs. II. Dynamical Classification, the Kuiper Belt Plane, and the Core Population" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal. 129 (2): 1117–1162. Bibcode:2005AJ....129.1117E. doi:10.1086/427395. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2008.
  10. ↑ Brown, Michael E.; Trujillo, Chadwick A.; Rabinowitz, David L. (2004). "Discovery of a Candidate Inner Oort Cloud Planetoid" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 617 (1): 645–649. arXiv:astro-ph/0404456Freely accessible. Bibcode:2004ApJ...617..645B. doi:10.1086/422095. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-06-27. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
  11. ↑ Trujillo, Chadwick A.; Sheppard, Scott S. (2014). "A Sedna-like body with a perihelion of 80 astronomical units" (PDF). Nature. 507 (7493): 471–474. Bibcode:2014Natur.507..471T. doi:10.1038/nature13156. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-12-16.
  12. ↑ "Evidence for an Extended Scattered Disk?". obs-nice.fr.
  13. ↑ Jewitt, D.; Delsanti, A. (2006). "The Solar System Beyond The Planets" (PDF). Solar System Update : Topical and Timely Reviews in Solar System Sciences (Springer-Praxis ed.). ISBN 3-540-26056-0.
  14. ↑ Gomes, Rodney S.; Matese, John J.; Lissauer, Jack J. (2006). "A Distant Planetary-Mass Solar Companion May Have Produced Distant Detached Objects" (PDF). Icarus. 184 (2): 589–601. Bibcode:2006Icar..184..589G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.05.026.
  15. ↑ "Distant object found orbiting Sun". BBC News. 2005-07-29. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
  16. 1 2 Rabinowitz, David L.; Barkume, K. M.; Brown, Michael E.; Roe, H. G.; Schwartz, M.; Tourtellotte, S. W.; Trujillo, C. A. (2006). "Photometric Observations Constraining the Size, Shape, and Albedo of 2003 El61, a Rapidly Rotating, Pluto-Sized Object in the Kuiper Belt". Astrophysical Journal. 639 (2): 1238. arXiv:astro-ph/0509401Freely accessible. Bibcode:2006ApJ...639.1238R. doi:10.1086/499575.
  17. ↑ "MPEC 2005-O42 : 2005 FY9". Minorplanetcenter.org. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  18. ↑ Hand, E. (2015-11-10). "Astronomers spot most distant object in the solar system, could point to other rogue planets". News.ScienceMag.org. AAAS. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
  19. ↑ "Mystery object in weird orbit beyond Neptune cannot be explained". New Scientist. 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
  20. ↑ Julio A., Fernández (January 2011). "On the Existence of a Distant Solar Companion and its Possible Effects on the Oort Cloud and the Observed Comet Population". The Astrophysical Journal. 726 (1): 33. Bibcode:2011ApJ...726...33F. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/726/1/33.
  21. ↑ Patryk S., Lykawka; Tadashi, Mukai (April 2008). "An Outer Planet Beyond Pluto and the Origin of the Trans-Neptunian Belt Architecture". The Astronomical Journal. 135 (4): 1161–1200. Bibcode:2008AJ....135.1161L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1161.
  22. ↑ Lorenzo, Iorio (August 2013). "Perspectives on effectively constraining the location of a massive trans-Plutonian object with the New Horizons spacecraft: a sensitivity analysis". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 116 (4): 357–366. Bibcode:2013CeMDA.116..357I. doi:10.1007/s10569-013-9491-x.
  23. 1 2 Peixinho, N.; Doressoundiram, A.; Delsanti, A.; Boehnhardt, H.; Barucci, M. A.; Belskaya, I. (2003). "Reopening the TNOs Color Controversy: Centaurs Bimodality and TNOs Unimodality". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 410 (3): L29–L32. arXiv:astro-ph/0309428Freely accessible. Bibcode:2003A&A...410L..29P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20031420.
  24. ↑ Hainaut, O. R.; Delsanti, A. C. (2002). "Color of Minor Bodies in the Outer Solar System". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 389 (2): 641–664. Bibcode:2002A&A...389..641H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020431. datasource
  25. ↑ Doressoundiram, A.; Peixinho, N.; de Bergh, C.; Fornasier, S.; Thébault, Ph.; Barucci, M. A.; Veillet, C. "The color distribution in the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt". The Astronomical Journal. 124 (4): 2279–2296. arXiv:astro-ph/0206468Freely accessible. Bibcode:2002AJ....124.2279D. doi:10.1086/342447.
  26. ↑ Gulbis, Amanda A. S.; Elliot, J. L.; Kane, Julia F. (2006). "The color of the Kuiper belt Core". Icarus. 183 (1): 168–178. Bibcode:2006Icar..183..168G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.01.021.
  27. ↑ A. Barucci Trans Neptunian Objects’ surface properties, IAU Symposium No. 229, Asteroids, Comets, Meteors, Aug 2005, Rio de Janeiro
  28. ↑ "Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter". Minorplanetcenter.org. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
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